Amos 3:9-15

A prophetic threat proclaimed 3:9-12

Vs 9 Proclaim this in the strongholds of Ashdod, likewise in the strongholds of the land of Egypt, saying: “gather yourselves upon the mountain of Samaria, witness the great upheavals within her, and the oppression in the midst of her.”
Vs 10 For they do not know how to do what is right, says the Lord, treasuring in their strongholds extortion and theft.

During the reign of Omri, Samaria became the capitol of the Northern Kingdom, as such it could stand as a name for the entire kingdom, and such is the case here. As we have seen, the leaders of Israelite society had become corrupt, greedy, and oppressive towards the poor (2:6-8). Also, they had rejected the prophets and the nazarites (2:11-12), no doubt because these people troubled their already guilty consciences.

God tells the prophet to proclaim to the pagan stronghold (i.e. fortified city) of Ashdod and to the strongholds in the pagan nation of Egypt that they are to gather and witness the sins which Samaria/Israel has stored up in her strongholds.

There is intense irony here. In telling the prophet to “Proclaim” something to the pagans God uses the Hebrew word shama (shaw-mah) in what is known as its hiphil form in which it means to tell or proclaim something. This same word, in its Qal form means to listen or hear. In this later form the word was spoken everyday by devout Jews in their morning prayer known as the shema:

“Hear, O Israel! The Lord is our God, the Lord alone! Therefore, you shall love the Lord, your God, with all your heart, and all your soul, and with all your strength. Take these words to heart which I enjoin on you today. Drill them into your children. Speak of them at home and when abroad, whether you are busy or at rest…” (Deut 6:4-7)

By “hearing the statutes and decrees” of the Lord the people were to give evidence of their “wisdom and intelligence to the nations” (see Deut 4:1-8); but this they have not done. As a result, pagan nations are called upon to witness the sins in Israel. The implication is that Israel has become as bad as, if not worse than, the pagans.

Vs 11 Therefore, thus says the Lord, an enemy shall encompass your land, and shall take from you your strength, and plunder your stronholds.

A generation after the preaching of Amos this prophetic warning would become reality when, in 722 BC, Assyria conquered the Northern Kingdom and sent the people into exile. Their cities, land, and the ill-gotten booty they “treasured in their strongholds” (vs 10) would be given over to an enemy, just as the prophet Moses had warned them (see Deut 28). The reference to lost strength repeats a warning from 2:14.

Vs 12 Thus says the Lord: As a shepherd grabs from the lion’s mouth two legs, or a portion of an ear, so shall the sons of Israel be saved with a corner of a couch, or a portion of a bed.

Again we see the image of the lion. A shepherd who wrestles over a sheep with a lion who has taken it as prey is likely to come away with very little for his efforts. Against the Assyrian menace a remnant of the people of Israel will survive, but without their pampered luxury symbolized by the couch and bed. Their “good life” extorted from the poor will come to an end. (Note: in Assyrian art the king, and sometimes his army, is symbolized by a lion).

Vs 13 Here this and bear testimony against the house of Jacob, says the Lord God, the God of Hosts:

Vs 14 For on the day I bring punishment upon Israel for his crimes I will also bring punishment upon the altars of Bethel, the horns of the altar I will cut off so that they fall to the ground.

Vs 15 The winter-house and the summer-house I will smite; and the ivory-houses shall perish, and their many houses shall be brought to an end, says the Lord.

It is uncertain to me whether God calls upon the prophet to bear witness in vs 13 or if it is Ashdod and Egypt who are being spoken to (see vs 9). The term House of Jacob could refer to the entire chosen people but here it must certainly refers to the ten tribes of the Northern Kingdom. This is borne out in vs 14 which speaks of the destruction of the altars at Bethel, which was in the Northern Kingdom.

Bethel was a sacred spot in Israel. Jacob himself, the father of the twelve tribes (see Gen 30-31) founded a sanctuary there (Gen 28). It was also at Bethel (also called Paddanaram) that God renewed the covenant promise he had originally made to Abraham (Gen 35:1-15). But God had chosen Jerusalem as the place for his temple to the exclusion of all other places; therefore, when Jeroboam I, the first king of the new Northern Kingdom, established a shrine at Bethel, it was seen as an abomination (see 1 kings 12:26-13:3). Worse, the altar was in the shape of a bull, the figure of an Egyptian deity. By the time of Amos’ preaching (circa 760 BC), the “sin of Jeroboam,” as it was called, had been in existence for about a century and a half. Bethel and its altars would indeed be destroyed. This in fact took place in 722 BC.

The wealthy people of Israel lived luxurious lives. In the summer they stayed their homes in Israel. Archaeology tells us that the homes of the wealthy during the time of Amos were magnificent, with the walls and floors being inlaid with ivory. Not content with these, they also had winter homes to the south, in the kingdom of Judah, where the weather during the winter months was somewhat milder. These too will be destroyed

Amos 3:1-8

Here begins another major section of the Prophet’s Book (3:1-4:13). It is in the form of a sermon which has combined many elements. The basic point of the sermon is that punishment is coming necessarily, and this necessity is due to Israel’s sins. It opens with a “call to attention” formula typical of the prophetic literature.AMOS 3:1-2

1. Hear this word that the Lord has spoken concerning you, O sons of Israel, concerning the whole family which I brought up out of the land of Egypt:
2. “Only you have I known among all the families of the earth; therefore I will punish you for your iniquities.”

“Hear this word” is a common biblical address meant to get an audience’s attention. It is found at the beginning of hymns of praise (Judges 5:3), it (or a similar formula) is also used in wisdom teaching (Prov 7:1, 24), and in military and political negotiations as well (2 Kings 18:28-29). But it was very common in prophetic speeches, especially those taking the form of a warning (Hosea 4:1; Isaiah 1:10; Ezekiel 6:3).

The word that the Lord has spoken concerning Israel is quoted beginning in verse 2: “only you have I known among all the families of the earth; therefore (i.e. for this reason, because of this) I will punish you for your iniquities.”

God chose to know Israel in a way not enjoyed by the other peoples of the world. Know, as used in Scripture, implies a special, intimate relationship of experience (see Gen 4:1; Jer1:5).

The wording of verses 1 and 2 would have called to the people’s minds the covenant of Moses which was itself a partial fulfillment of the promises made to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (also called Israel).

God had chosen Abraham so that in his descendents “all the families of the earth might find blessing (see Gen 12:3; 18:18;). A promise repeated after the near sacrifice of Isaac (Gen 22:18), and repeated again to Jacob (Israel) in Gnesis 28:10-15.

In Exodus 19, as God prepares to make his covenant with the people under Moses, he says to Moses: “Thus you shall say to the house of Jacob, and tell the people of Israel: You have seen what I did to the Egyptians, and how I bore you up on eagle’s wings and brought you to myself. Now therefore, if you will obey my voice and keep my covenant, you shall be my own possession among all the peoples; for all the earth is mine.” (Ex 19:3-5, RSV). And as he makes the covenant he begins with these words: “I am the Lord, your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt.”

The words then of Amos 3:1-2 would have reminded the people of their founding traditions and their privileges as the Chosen People. A privilege Paul describes memorably: “They are Israelites; theirs the adoption, the glory, the covenants, the giving of the law, the worship, and the promises; theirs the patriarchs, and from them, according to the flesh, is the Messiah.” (Rom 9:4-5, NAB). But with privilege and blessing comes responsibilities (see Luke 12:48) which the people had not fulfilled: Therefore, God says in Amos 3:2, I will punish you for your iniquities. In punishing the people God is showing himself to be what he was, the father of Israel, His firstborn son (Exodus 4:22-23); “for whom the Lord loves he disciplines; he scourges every son he acknowledges.” (see Hebrews 12:1-12).

Amos 3:3-8

After calling the people to attention and announcing that punishment is coming for their failure to live as God’s covenanted children, God, through the prophet, asks a series of rhetorical questions which are meant to justify the action God is taking. Every effect [in this case, God’s punishment] has a cause (vss 3-6). Then a reference is made to prophecy (vss 7-8).

3. Do two go about together unless they belong together?

The answer is quite obviously no. A lamb and a lion do not go about together. In Amos’ day people of differing social classes or sexes did not associate together unless there was some cause for them to do so.

4. Does a lion ROAR in the forest even though he is without prey. Does a young lion GIVE OUT HISA VOICE from his habitation if he has caught nothing?

I know nothing of such things but recall that Amos was a herdsman from the wilderness of Tekoa, he would certainly know that a lion’s roar is caused by its capture of prey. Notice that this verse calls to mind the keynote verse of the Book of Amos:

“the Lord ROARS from Zion GIVES OUT HIS VOICE from Jerusalem…the height of Carmel withers” (Amos 1:2). The importance of this will be seen later. [note that the CAPITALIZED words refers to the sound/voice of God/lion; and the italicised words refer to where God/ a lion dwells]

5. Does a bird fall victim to a snare upon the earth if their is no bait to lure it? Does a snare spring up from the ground if there is no prey to capture?

Again, the answer is no; effects have there causes.

6. Does a trumpet sound in a city and the people do not tremble? Does affliction come upon a city and the Lord has not been the cause of it?

Trumpet is a reference to the shofar, the rams horn that was blown to signal the approach of an enemy. Its sound would definitely cause the people to tremble.

God had warned the people as they were about to enter the promised land that if they refused to obey his covenant he would punish them by causing foreign armies to invade their land and sack their cities (see Deut 28:49-52).

Notice the progression of these verses. Verse 3 asked, very generically, “do two walk together?” The question was so vague that it could refer to animals or people. Verse 4 focused on the theme of animals against animals; a lion roars because it has captured its prey. Verse 5 focuses on the theme of man against animals, for only men lay snares. Verse 6a focuses upon the theme of men against men, for only men war with men. verse 6b focuses upon the theme of God against men; implicitly, the focus is upon his relationship with his people. Every effect in the world has its cause.

Vs 7 Certainly the Lord God does nothing without revealing his plans to his servants the prophets.

In order to keep the people on the straight and narrow, and to ensure that they did not forget him and commit idolatry, God had, through Moses, promised the people that he would raise up prophets to guide and instruct them (see Deut 18:9-22). Recall, however, that the people of the Northern Kingdom had rejected the prophets sent to them (see Amos 2:12). The people therefore are without excuse: “for if any man will not listen to my words which the prophet speaks in my name, I myself will make him answer for it.” (Deut 18:19).

Vs 8 A lion has roared-who does not fear? The Lord God has spoken-who does not prophecy?

The reference to a lion roaring recalls the keynote verse in 1:2. There we saw that God, the shepherd of his flock, Israel, had become their worst nightmare. Like a lion with its prey he had roared (see 3:4) and there was drought upon the land. Not only was he roaring through natural calamities, but also through his prophets-who will not be afraid? As will be seen in 4:6-11, the people were apparently not afraid. As will be seen in Amos 7:12-13, they will seek to silence the prophecies of Amos, but to no avail.

Amos 2:6-16

Having spoke judgement oracles against seven nations, including Judah, the prophet begins his eighth and longest oracle -against Israel itself.

2:6-8 ECONOMIC INJUSTICE

Vs 6. Thus says the Lord: For the three transgressions of Israel, and for four, I will not call it back; because for silver they have sold the righteous, and for a pair of sandals the destitute.

As we have seen already, transgression means deliberate rebellion against God. In Israel’s case, however, the trangression is more deplorable than it was with the pagan nations because it, unlike those nations, was privileged with the law, the revealed will of God (see Deut 4:5-8). Judah too, in a short, two sentence statement, was condemned for its infidelity to the law, but Amos sees Israel’s sins as much worse.

In the first reason given for the condemnation, the operative words are the righteous and the destitute, not “silver” or “sandals”. The sin of Israel, its rebellion against the revealed will of God, is injustice toward men which manifests itself in greed. This brings to mind a famous Biblical text:

He (Jesus) said to him: “You shall love the Lord, your God, with your whole heart, with your whole soul, and with your whole mind. This is the first and greatest commandment. The second is like it: you mst love your neighbor as yourself. The whole of the law and of the prophets rests on these two commands. (see Mt 22:34-40. Also Lev 19:18)

As will be seen later, the righteous are sold and the needy are cheated by bribery in the law courts.

Vs 7 They lust for the very dust of the land that has settled on the head of the poor. They pervert the way of the poor; a man and his father go to the same servant, so as to profane my holy name.

Their greed, the manifestation of their unrighteousness, shows itself as greed for land. This greed is here described as so intense that it is a lusting after the very dust of the land that has settled on the poor man’s head!

they pervert the way of the poor. The Hebrew word for way is derek, like its Greek counterpart hodos, it refers literally to a path or road (highway, freeway, pathway). In the Bible, both words are used to denote moral activity (see psalm 1). The sense here could be that the action of the unrighteous leads the poor man into unrighteousness. Another possible interpretation is that the word poor is being used here in the sense of meek or humble. They pervert the way of the meek would then mean that they have left the right road, the right course of moral activity. They no longer walk the road of the humble. (Again, see the metaphor of “the way” in psalm 1).

A man and his father go into the same servant: The law in Leviticus 18:8 and 20:11-12 forbid a father and son from having sexual relations with the same woman. Such an act was considered a form of incest and a gross perversion of the moral order, thus a profaning of the holy name of God.

The word I translated as servant could also be translated as prositute. But given the econmic context of vss 6-8 I think servant is better. A man could put his daughter into servitude to pay off a debt, alleviate a desperate financial situation, or simply because he could not take proper care of her. The law provided protection for such women (see Exodus 21:7-11). It may be that the wealthy men of Isarel were cheating and taking advantage of the poor to gain their daughters as “sexual” servants. (This is the view of Marvin Sweeney in THE TWELVE PROPHETS, Vol. 1).

Vs 8 And on garments taken in pledge they stretch themselves out beside every altar, and they drink the wine of the condemned in the place of their gods.

If a person owed a debt certain of his garments could be taken in pledge ((Ex 22:25-26), but these had to be returned to him at night for humanitarian reasons. According to Deuteronomy 24:12-13, a man who took anothers garment as a debt pledge was forbidden to sleep on it since it had to be returned to the debtor for him to sleep in. Apparently, Amos is accusing the wealthy of not breaking the law of Deuteronomy. However, not simplu content to break this law, they compound it by drinking the wine of the condmned. Condmned here means those who have had a legal judgement go against them. Fines could be paid with agricultural commodities. As we have already noted, the courts in Israel were perverted by bribes. The prophet is here condemning people for enjoying ill-gotten wine on ill-gotten garments. Worse still, they are enjoying these things beside every altar in the place of their gods. They enjoy the fruits of their perversion of justice beside the altars of the “high places” so often condemned by the prophets (see Hosea 10:8; Amos 7:9).

2:9-11 WHAT GOD HAS DONE FOR HIS PEOPLE

Vs9 Yet it was I who destroyed the Amorites before them, who were as high as the heights of the cedars, and who were as strong as the oaks; I destroyed the fruit that was above and the roots that were beneath.

The opening of verse 9 is emphatic. It highlights the marked contrast between what God has done for Israel and how they have responded.

Amorites refers to a Semetic speaking people who migrated into the Holy Land, Syria, and Mesopotamia (Iraq) early in the second millenium BC. The Bible identifies them , along with Canaanites and Hittites, as possessing the Holy Land before the advent of the twelve tribes. The Bible presents the Amorites as idolaters and as exceedingly sinful and this is given as the reason for God’s action against them (see Leviticus 18:24-30).

Their height is compared to that of the cedar tree and their strength is compared to that of an oak. In the bible, trees are often used as a symbol of might, but also of pride and arrogance (see Ezekiel 31; Isaiah 2:13; and my notes on Isaiah 2:13-16). The Amorites were too strong and powerful for the People of God to defeat without God’s help (see Numbers 13:25-14:45). For the sake of his people God destroyed the tree-like Amorites completely: their fruit above and their root beneath.

Vs 10 And it was I who brought you up from the land of Egypt, and who led you in the wilderness for forty years, so that you might take possession of the land of the amorites.

The forty years in the wilderness was a result of the people’s lack of trust in God, manifested in their refusal to trust that he could conqueor the Amorites (see the Numbers link above). Yet, although God did punish the people for this sin he did not reject them, he thus manifested both his justice and his mercy. Even in the midst of their forty year punishment God took care of them (Deut 8:1-5). The purpose of all they experienced those forty years was so that they might take possession of the land.

Vs 11 From among your sons I raised up prophets; and from among your young men (I raised up) Nazarites. Is this not so, O sons of Israel? says the Lord.

Once the people had come into the Holy Land God raised up prophets for them, to ensure that they stayed on the straight and narrow in their relations with him, for a prime duty of the prophet was to oversee the right worship of God and the eradication of idolatry (Deut 18:9-22).

Nazarites The law regarding Nazarites can be found in Numbers 6:1-7. The exact significance of Nazarites is unknown. The term means “dedicated”, this may imply that they were meant to be examples to the people of holiness and commitment to God since things were made holy when they were dedicated to the service of the Lord.

2:12-16 A FURTHER SIN AND GOD’S RESPONSE

Vs 12 But you caused the Nazarites to drink wine, and demanded of the prophet: “Do not prophecy.”

They probably find commitment to the Lord a burden on their own guilty consciences, and so they force the Nazarite to abandon his commitment in order to feel better about themselves. Some things never change. For the same reason, prophets calling for right morality and a commitment to God are silenced. “Why should I listen to a celibate in Rome talk about sex and marriage?” “Don’t impose your morality on me!” Like I said, some things never change.

Vs 13 Behold, I will press down upon you as sheaves press down upon a cart.

Having found God’s moral will a burden, the people will now be burdened by the the Lord’s punishment, which will weigh upon them like produce in an overloaded cart.

Vs 14 Flight will perish from the fleet, the strong will not hold onto his strengh, and the mighty one will not deliver himself.

Vs 15 The skilled bowman will not stand, and the fleet of foot shall not deliver himself, and the one who rides a horse shall not save his life.

Vs 16 The stoutest heart among the mighty shall run away naked on that day, says the Lord.

The self-reliant, the “free moral agents”, will not be so fast, strong, or mighty, to save themselves from God’s wrath (Vs 14). This wrath will apparently manifest it self in the form of an invading army (Vss 15-16); the Assyrians, who would destroy the Northern Kingdom in 722 BC.

Amos 1:3-2:8

1:3-5 Oracle against Damascus.

Thus says the Lord: For the three trangressions of Damscus, and for four, I will not call it back; for they have threshed Gilead with threshing sleds of iron, I will send fire upon the house of Hazael it shall eat up the strongholds of Ben-Hadad. I will break the bar of Damascus, cut off those who dwell in the valley of Aven, along with him who holds the scepter in Beth-Eden; and the people of Aram shall go as captives into Kir, says the Lord.

The first oracle is against Syria, which was also named Aram, and, Damascus, which was its capitol.

Thus says the Lord: Is typical of prophetic speech. The prophet is speaking on God’s authority, not his own.

For three trangressions…and for four: These words form part of all the oracles. They express indefiniteness, a lack of any limit. Transgression is, in the literal Hebrew, rebellion. The word implies a rebellion against some authority (1 Kings 12:10; 2 Kings 1:1). The implication here is that the authority rebelled against is God. Although the pagan nations did not have the Law as the Chosen People did, they still had the moral authority of their God-given conscience.

Damascus: The capitol of Aram, which was also called Syria;

I will not call it back: “it” has no referrent in the Hebrew but clearly God’s punishment is what will not be called back. God’s patience is at an end. The looming threat throughout the book is the Assyrian Empire.

They have threshed Gilead with threshing sleds of iron: Threshing sleds were heavy wooden platforms which had small iron spikes on the bottom of them. These were dragged over harvested grain to crush it in order to seperate the kernels from the chaff. While this crime of Damascus is often interpreted literally, it should be understood that this image was a common metaphor for wholesale military destruction.

Gilead refers to Israellite territory east of the sea of Galilee (called Kinneret in the OT) and the Jordan River. This area was often subject to invasion by Aram. Numerous battles between Aram and Israel took place in the 9th century BC for control of the region and Israel lost control of part of it. It was during one of these battles, near the city of Ramoth-Gilead that King Ahab of Israel was killed (see 1 Kings 22). Only around the time of Amos was Israel able to assert its full control over the region. The people would see the punishment of Aram as well justified.

I shall send fire upon the house of Hazael, and it shall eat up the strongholds of Ben-Hadad: The kingdom and the short lived dynasty of Hazael will succumb to military attack.

Hazael was an officer of King Ben-Hadad (not the one Amos mentions). He was suppossed to be annointed by Elijah as king of Aram (see 1 Kings 19:15), whether this happened or not is unclear. Later, he was sent to Elisha by Ben-Hadad to inquire if he (Beh-Hadad) would recover from an illness. At this time Elisha predicts the trouble Hazael will bring upon Israel (see 2 Kings 2:8). Upon his return to Aram Hazael murdered Ben-Hadad and ascended the throne. For this reason, Assyrian records refer to him as “son of a nobody”, for he had no royal blood in him. He warred unsuccessfully against Shalmaneser III of Assyria in 841 and 837 BC. He also warred against Jehoahaz of Israel and conquered the territory around Ramoth -Gilead (see 2 Kings 10:32). This left Jehoahaz weakened (see 2 Kings 13:7). He conquered the Philistine city of Gath and then laid siege to Jerusalem, the capitol of Judah which paid him a heavy tribute to end the siege (see 2 Kings 12:17-18). He was succeeded to the throne by his son Ben-Hadad (the one Amos does mention).
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I will break the bar of Damascus: The heavily fortified gates of the city will be breached by the Assyrians.

I will cut off those who dwell in the valley of Aven: The word Aven means sin or evil power. It is a contemptous reference to the Beqa Valley which was part of Aram/Syria at that time. (It now sits on the border between Lebanon and Syria). The place will be cut off; this is perhaps a reference to their no longer being able to trade along the Mediterranean costal routes because their access to it has been cut off. More likely, in light of the rest of the text, it refers to exile.

along with him who holds the scepter at Beth-Eden; and the people of Aram shall go as captives into Kir:

Ben-Hadad, the son of Hazael is the one who holds the scepter. Beth-Eden means “house of pleasure” and is a contemptous word-play on the name of a city “Bit Adini”. This city was located on the banks of the Euphrates River, about 200 miles northeast of Damascus. It would be, in the event of an Assyrian invasion, the first target to be attacked. It was a strong, fortified city and therefore a key for the maintaining of the kingdom of Aram. Beh-Hadad is said to hold the scepter from this city, meaning his whole kingdom and rule was dependent on it. The prophet is implying that it will fall and, as a result, the king and the people will go as captives to Kir. There is evidence to suggest that at the time of Amos’ ministry, Assyria had already gained control of Beth-Eden (Bit Adini). The location of Kir is disputed, many think it’s a reference to an area east of Babylon, on the northeast shore of the Persian gulf. According to Amos 9:7, the people of Aram were orignally from Kir and had been transplanted to Syria by the goodnes of God. The comparison to the Chosen People in that passage suggests that the people of Aram had once ben slaves, like God’s people. Into slavery they will return.

TO SEE PICTURES OF GILEAD CLICK HERE

1:6-8 ORACLES AGAINST PHILISTIA

For info on Philistia click here. Be sure to click on the map to enlarge.

1:9-10 ORACLE AGAINST TYRE

The covenant of brotherhood is a reference to the pact both David and Solomon had with King Hiram of Tyre, which established a “brotherhood” among them. Hiram supplied both men and materials to David for the building of his palace (2 Sam 5:11-12). He later supplied men and materials to Solomon for the building of the Jerusalem Temple (1 Kings 5:15-32). In both these passages the Biblical language of covenant (love, brother) is used. During the time of king Jehu of Israel Tyre failed to support Israel in its troubles with Aram. Tyre is said to have delivered up a whole people to Edom inasmuch as their failure to help Israel led to the exile of many Israelites from Gilead by Aram. For more on Tyre click here.

1:11-12 ORACLE AGAINST EDOM

He pursued his brother with the sword: According to the book of Genesis, Esau was the father of the Edomites. He was also the elder twin brother of Jacob, (also called Israel) who is the father of the twelve tribes. In Genesis 27:27:39-40, Isaac, the father of the twins, prophesied that Esau would live by the sword, be subject to his younger brother, but eventually free himself. Israel gained control over Edom during the reign of David and held onto that control till the time of Jehoram (2 Kings 8:20-22). Archaeologist have discovered a whole string of forts on the border between Edom and the holy land, suggesting tht conflict between the brother-peoples was not rare.

he cast off all pity: A poor translation. The Hebrew phrase refers to the killing of women: “he destroyed wombs.”

his anger tore perpetually: The Hebrew word for “tore” refers to a lion eating, emphasising the bitterness of the anger.

he kept his wrath forever: Literally, “his wrath watched forever.” Like a lion which, when guarding its kill will attack at the slightest provocation.

For more on Edom click here.

1:13-15 ORACLE AGAINST AMMON

For more on Ammon click here.

2:1-3 ORACLE AGAINST MOAB

For info on Moab click here.

2:4-5 ORACLE AGAINST JUDAH

Judah has been led astray by lies, a common biblical term for idol.

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